Roman Religions :: essays research papers

The ancient Romand worshiped many gods, godesses and spirits, each of whom was responsible for a different part of life. Juno was the goddess of woman; Jupiter, the king of the gods was also the god of the sky; Mercury was the god of merchants; Wulcan the god of fire; Mars the god of war; Minerva the goddess of wisdom; Venus the goddess of fertility and love. The ancient Romans adopted gods and goddesses from other cultures as well. Bacchusor or Dionysus, the Greek god of wine; Cybelle, the Turkish goddess of motherhood; and Isis from the Egyptian pantheon who was concerned with reincarnation. Emperors and empresses were sometimes worshiped after their deaths.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Emperors showed their devotion to their favored deities by building temples to them. Roman citizens left offerings such as food, milk, wine, money, jewels or statues at temple alters and engaged in ceremonies and animal sacrifices to win the gods approval.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Romans were generally accepting of other people’s religions but persecuted the Christians because, among other things, they displeased the gods by refusing to patricipate in such animal sacrifices and unjust ceremonies. Christianity finally because the official religion during the 4th century in Rome.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Romans built large temples for these many gods. They were often built in places that people believed were special to their gods. The Acropolis, in Greece is one of these places.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In ancient Greece, the Greeksk alson believed in many gods and goddesses. The gods behaved much like ordinary people, but they had great wisdon. They were wiser, more cunning, and more powerful. The gods not only controlled nature, but they also controlled people’s fate. There were 12 main gods of the Greek belief, known as the Olympians. Some of the most famous included Zeus, Athena, Poseidon, and Apollo.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When you walked into a Greek or Roman temple, you would find a statue of a god or goddess at the end of a long, dark room. A row of columns ran down the center of the room along both sides. A worshiper of the time might have visited the temple to thank the god for a favor and leave them a gift.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The inside of the temple wasn’t a gathering place for worship like churches and sacred buildings of today. Worship services were held outside on an alter. The temple protects the statur of the god from the weather and anyone who would come along and harm it.

Occupational Therapy Essay -- essays research papers fc

An occupational therapist is a trained and licensed health care professional who can make a complete evaluation of the impact of disease on the activities of the patient at home and in work situations. Hobbies and recreational activities are considered when an assessment is made. The most generally accepted definition of occupational therapy is that it is an activity, physical or mental, that aids in a patient’s recovery from disease or injury.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Occupational therapist takes a history from the patient by conducting a thorough interview. Questions are asked about hygiene, eating, dressing, getting in and out of bed, driving, cleaning, working and the patients sex life. A physical examination is conducted extensively concentrating on range of motion. Observations of deformities are noted because they may hinder the performance of the patient. The therapist assesses the need for splints or supports which might benefit the patient and helps design specific assistive devices.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"It is the job of the occupational therapist to innovate plans to overcome the imposed limitations while helping the patient reduce strain and prevent further damage by teaching techniques that conserve energy† (Sasser 75). There are numerous ways to make daily living easier. The most crucial part of therapy is assessing the patient’s environment. All the people, cultural conditions and physical objects that are around them, create their environment. The behavior and development of people is a direct result of the interaction between them and their surroundings. A patient’s behavior is greatly effected when they are mismatched with their environment. â€Å"A persons environment match is present when the persons level of competence matches the demands of the environment† (Cole 75). Full participation by the patient is required to make it practicable. The importance of occupational therapy is to help the patient use what they have to the fullest. Therapists know that in this particular field there will not be a dramatic improvement, but there will be a better quality of life lived by the patient. In today’s world, it is extremely important to keep accurate records on all aspects of care giving. According to Sladyk, â€Å"Documentation is one of the most important duties an occupational therapist can have aside from treating the patient† (1... ...ing, organizing, analyzing, generating, integrating and evaluating. It is essential that as occupational therapy students we become self-determining, independent thinkers. Technical writing skills will be used throughout our career. Mastering technical writing will come with practice and will prove to be one of the most instrumental elements we have learned in our curriculum. Works Cited Aquaviva, J.D. Effective Documentation for Occupational Therapy. Bethesda, MD: American Occupational Therapy Association, 1992. Early, M.B. Mental Health Concepts and Techniques for the Occupational Therapist Assistant. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Raven Press, 1993. Markell, Mike. Technical Communication: Situations and Strategies. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Okeema, Kathleen. Cognition and Perception in Occupational Therapy. Gaithsburg, MD: Aspen Publishing, 1993. Reed, K.L. Quick Reference to Occupational Therapy. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publications, 1991. Sasser, Martha. The Practice of Occupational Therapy. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby- Year Book, Inc, 1998. Sladyk, Karen. OT Student Primer: A Guide to College Success. Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Incorporated, 1997.

Diarrhea

Diarrhea is abnormally frequent and watery bowel movements. It is one of the most common bodily disturbances. Diarrhea may be a mild symptom of some more serious condition, such as tumor of the bowel (intestine), or may be the chief symptom of an infection in the bowel caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. In addition, diarrhea may be caused by improperly prepared or spoiled foods, by contaminated water, by certain chemicals, by irritation or inflammation of the lining of the intestines, or be generalized diseases that do no involve the bowel primarily (Stone, et al.112-113).Diarrhea varies from a slight inconvenience lasting a day or two to a grave illness. The most severe form of diarrhea is found in persons suffering from cholera. Consequences of diarrhea are loss of electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium; dehydration; and, in severe cases, heart failure. Diarrhea is a leading cause of death in infants. Treatment of diarrhea is directed towards eliminating the cause, when the cause is known. Drugs such as paregoric may be used to decrease the irritability of the bowel.The patient may be given extra fluid, injected directly into his veins (Wolfe 34-36), to make up for fluids lost through the bowel. Furthermore, diseases of the digestive system are essentially of two types, infections and intoxications. An infection occurs when a pathogen enters the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and multiplies. Microorganisms can penetrate into the intestinal mucosa and grow there or can pass through to other systematic organs.Infections are characterized by a delay in the appearance of gastrointestinal disturbance while the pathogen increases in numbers or effects invaded tissue (Wolfe 34-36). There is also usually a fever, one of the body’s general responses to an infective organism. Some pathogens cause disease by elaborating toxins that affect the GI tract. Intoxication is caused by ingestions o such a performed toxin. Most intoxications, such as that caused by Staphylococcus aureus, are characterized by a very sudden appearance (usually in only a few hours) of symptoms of a GI disturbance.Fever is less often one of the symptoms (Stone, et al. 112-113). Both infections and intoxications often cause diarrhea, which most of us have experienced. Severe diarrhea, accompanied by blood or mucus, is called dysentery. Both types of digestive system diseases are also frequently accompanied by abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting (see http://digestive-disorders. health-cares. net/diarrhea. php). The general term gastroenteritis is applied to diseases causing inflammation of the stomach and intestinal mucosa (Stone, et al.112-113).Botulism is a special case of intoxication because the ingestion of the performed toxin affects the nervous system rather than the GI tract. In the developing countries, diarrhea is a major factor in infant mortality. Approximately one in every ten children dies of it before the age of five. It also affects the absorpt ion of nutrients from their food and adversely affects the growth of the survivors. The cause of diarrhea may be any of several organisms.Most are not identified, but surveys in such countries as Bangladesh indicate that the three most common causes are enterotoxigenic E. coli, Shigella spp. , and intestinal rotaviruses. It is estimated that mortality from childhood diarrhea could be halved by oral rehydration therapy (Stone, et al. 112-113). Ideally, this is a solution of sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and sodium bicarbonate. However, even a solution of a handful of table sugar and a pinch of salt in a liter of water has proved to be a very useful treatment for diarrheal diseases. Reference: What is diarrhea? Health-cares.net your fitness guides. http://digestive-disorders.health-cares.net/diarrhea.php Stone, J., et al. (1999).Clinical gerontological nursing, pp. 112-113 (3rd edition) Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. Wolfe, M (Ed.) 2000. Therapy of digestive disorders. Pp. 34-36. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.

Micro And Nano Electromechanical Systems Engineering Essay

IntroductionIt is the procedure by which electricity drives all highly little mechanical devices. It consists of both electrical and mechanical constituents. Components are in the scope of 1 to 100 microns in size and due to its big surface to volume ratio electrostatics and wetting forces dominate. MEMS are fabricated utilizing semiconducting material device fiction engineerings chiefly used to fabricate smaller devices. MEMS is categorized as actuators and detectors. Detectors are non invasive whereas actuators are invasive and modify the environment. MEMS produce big figure of devices, which have indistinguishable belongingss, by batch processing. In aerospace field dependability is more of import compared to batch processing, as the ballistic capsule has to work for longer clip without failure. Miniaturization of electronics is brought about by decreased cost and mass production. These factors along with decreased size, weight, cost, detectors and actuators are used in miniaturis ation of electronics. Micro technology engineering will profit aerospace systems due to decreased size, mass and power demands. Batch fiction of MEMS brought about the revolution of incorporate devices [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . MEMS integrate the non-electronic detectors with signal conditioning and digital logic electronics on a individual bit. Hence the constituents can be altered based on their on the job status. Actuators are chiefly used to command flux. In aerospace applications MEMS are inserted into micro propulsion systems, strain detectors, inertial gesture detectors, magnetic field detectors, force per unit area detectors, flow rate detectors and so on [ 1 ] .Few Instruments USED FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONSMicromachined air-breathing propulsors and actuatorsMEMS engineering has been used in the industry of solid-state propulsion, called the man-made jet. It is based on the construct of pumping the fluid in oscillating gesture. Actuator has a little hole in a pit. Volume of this pit can be modulated in an oscillating manner. To drive this volume of the pit any mechanical device can be used such that it operates at its resonating frequence. The construction is operated at its resonating frequence so that the drive amplitudes, which are achieved, are moderate. Sucking and blowing the fluid instead through a little hole is how the actuator operates. It should be take attention that the pump shot has a directed jet whereas the suction shot will pull fluid from all waies. Finally we see that the unstable drawn from the sides has low impulse and the fluid expelled upwards has higher impulse [ 2 ] [ 4 ] . The disadvantage of this device is that it is non really efficient as a device on the whole as the entire impulse imparted to the jet is really little. Man-made jets, which are fabricated by MEMS, have the undermentioned advantages i ) uniformity if the device is high and the losingss due to mechanical inefficiencies are reduced due to high Q public presentation of MEMS two ) push of the system can be increased by building arrays of actuators [ 2 ] [ 4 ] .NMP ST5 THERMAL LOUVERSThis looks at the flight proof of advanced micro sat engineerings that have non yet been flown to infinite so that the hazard associated with the hereafter NASA missions can be reduced. MEMS shutters have been developed for smart thermic control [ 2 ] .JWST MICROSHUTTER ARRAYJames Webb Space Telescope has developed a MEMS based microshutter array. This was developed near the spectrometer instrument. It is composed of for faculties with dimensions of 175 by 384 pels. This device is advantageous as these microsh utter are extremely selectively configurable in order to do usage of the NASA ‘s sensor. It is made out of Si nitride membrane [ 2 ] [ 4 ] .INCHWORM MICROACTUATORSThis is developed for extremist preciseness placement of the mirror sections in the ballistic capsule. This was chiefly developed utilizing the MEMS/NEMS engineering [ 2 ] .NMP ST6 INERTIAL STELLAR CAMERAIt combines MEMS inertial detectors with active pel detectors in order to do it a multifunctional bundle. This s used to take high-resolution exposures in infinite. It has embedded MEMS gyroscope [ 2 ] .MICROTHRUSTERSThese enable micropropulsive tactics for formation winging and besides the pointing of nano, pico and micro orbiters exactly. Without MEMS engineering being used for propulsion these devices can non fulfill the limited system mass and power restraints. MEMS engineering is used it provides the advantage of high denseness, low power and volume, big push degrees, quotable push vectors and integrating is sim ple. For MEMS we make usage of a Si substrate for fabricating [ 2 ] .Fabrication OF MEMS TECHNOLOGYMEMS fiction is a portion of the fiction engineerings. Traditional machining procedure uses big sum of diverse stuffs, 3-dimensional devices can be fabricate in order to bring forth precise devices. When we use MEMS fiction the stuffs used are more limited but little dimension devices can be manufactured. The fiction methods can be grouped into three chief classs. They are: Lithography, Galvanoformung, Abformung ( LIGA ) Bulk micromachining Sacrificial surface micromachining The last two procedures are silicon based. Bulk micromachining utilizations wet or dry etching procedures besides in order to bring forth isotropic and anisotropic stuffs. They produce MEMS structures that can be used for inertial detectors, force per unit area detectors and noses [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . LIGA – It helps to do complex constructions of metals, which are electroplatable, and holding high aspect ratios and thickness of several hundred micrometers. This procedure makes usage of ten beam lithography, thick resist beds and metals in order to organize complex constructions. The procedure starts by lodging a thin bed of sacrificial bed used for dividing the LIGA country from the country of the substrate after fiction. This has good adhesion and merely a think stuff will be sputter deposited. Titanium and Ni are the common stuff used for this procedure. X ray synchrotron is done following in order to bring forth walls over the thick resist to for a mask. Then we do electroplating of the base stuff after which shining is done. The sacrificial bed is removed in order to bring forth the LIGA portion. Magnetic propulsion is possible with this [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . BULK MICROMACHINING – The different countries that have to considered during etching is: Dissembling Selectivity of etch due to crystallographic orientation Etch halt and stop point sensing Endpoint sensing is used in order to command the deepness of the etch and besides to minimise the harm to the movies lying beneath. Plasma etching is best suited for this procedure [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . SACRIFIAL SURFACE MICROMACHINING – This method is holding its roots on deposition, modeling and etching of stuffs on a substrate. They will hold alternate beds of sacrificial and substrate stuff. Sacrificial bed is removed towards the terminal of the procedure, which consequences in a mechanical construction. An anneal is required in order to cut down the degrees of emphasis. The MEMS micromachines are much larger and thicker compared to the microelectronic devices [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . MEMS bundles for aerospace applications – these bundles are used in order to minimise the size, cost, mass and complexness of the system. It helps to supply interface between the overall system and the constituents. These bundles must run into demands such as thermic cycling, humidness, high temperature operation, radiation and daze to call a few [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . MECHANICAL SUPPORT – This is extremely mechanical in nature hence it has to be protected from high acceleration, mechanical daze, radiation and other physical amendss associated with it. This depends strictly on the applications like when a ballistic capsule lands on the planet ‘s surface it will see greater mechanical daze than any other ballistic capsule. Coefficient of thermic enlargement ( CTE ) of the MEMS bundle should be equal to or greater than CTE of Si on order for it to be dependable. The thermic parametric quantities can ensue in delamination or decease checking if there is any job with the Si or emphasis. After CTE job is take attention of the following thing to be considered is physical harm [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . Protection FROM ENVIRONMENT- MEMS packaging has to be protected from physical harm and besides when it is packaged during fiction and before it is sealed. Main attention has to be taken because of its reaction with wet as it causes the stuffs to swell, emphasis and delaminate. Hence, these bundles need to be hermetic with the sidewalls, base and palpebra in order for high dependability. They should be constructed from stuffs that can move as good barriers to liquid and gases and besides they should non pin down gases. Some MEMS french friess require vacuity conditions in order for it to run decently [ 3 ] [ 5 ] . Feature size 3-5Â µm 3-5Â µm 1Â µm 10-25Â µm Device thickness & A ; gt ; 1mm & A ; gt ; 1mm 13mm Very Large Lateral dimension & A ; gt ; 2mm & A ; gt ; 2mm 2mm & A ; gt ; 10m Relative tolerance 10^-2 10^-2 10^-1 & A ; gt ; 10^-3 Materials Electroplated metals or injection plated plastic Very limited stuff Very limited stuff Highly big sum of stuff Assembly demands Assembly required Assembly required Assembled as fancied Assembly required Scalability Limited Limited Yes Yes Microelectronic intergrability No Yes Yes No Device geometry Two dimensional high facet ratio Two dimensional high facet ratio Multi bed two dimensional Very flexible three dimensional Processing Parallel processing at wafer degree Parallel processing at wafer degree Parallel processing at wafer degree Consecutive processing Table: COMPARISION OF MEMS FABICATION METHODSTYPES OF MEMS PACKAGESMetallic element PACKAGES – This provides first-class thermic dissipation and electromagnetic shielding. They can hold big internal volume but still dependable. Package will hold integrated sidewalls and base with palpebras. Materials are mainly metals like CuW, which have good thermic conduction, and higher CTE compared to silicon. Trapped gases should be removed invariably as it reduces failures related to corrosion. Au-Sn solder is used when stuffs have to be bonded. Welding can besides be used alternatively of solder. The metallization procedure allows for wetting the conducting pin wholly to the ceramic. Incomplete wetting consequences in failure during proving [ 6 ] [ 7 ] . CERAMIC PACKAGES – These have low mass, cost and can be produced in majority. These can be made hermetic and can execute different map. When we incorporate multiple beds of ceramics and interconnect lines, electrical public presentation of the bundle will run into the design demands. On each movie a metal bed is deposited utilizing thick movie processing and holes for interconnects are drilled. After these beds are fabricated the portion is fired at high temperature and MEMS and other constituents is attached to it. Many factors should be take attention of in this bundle that is the sum of holes, shriveling beds, treating temperature and ceramic belongingss. Frequently used metals are W and Mo. Normally used music directors are Ag, AgPd, Au and AuPt [ 6 ] [ 7 ] . THIN-FILM MULTILAYER PACKAGES – Two engineerings are used. First uses polyamide sheets, which are laminated together. Second, polymeric amide is used in this instance besides but each bed is spun onto and baked on carried to organize beds. In this method we use etching. The polymeric amides have lower permittivity so it has low line electrical capacity, which consequences in faster circuits [ 6 ] [ 7 ] . Plastic PACKAGES – These have lower fabrication cost. These are non extremely dependable and are non anchoritic in nature. These bundles are susceptible to checking in humid environment. Hence these bundles have non gained much importance [ 6 ] .EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF MEMS FOR SPACEMEMS devices used for infinite applications have reduced weight, cost, size and power ingestion. Common detectors and actuators used are accelerometers, gyroscopes, gaussmeters and spectrometers.VARIABLE EMITTANCE COATING INSTRUMENT FOR SPACE TECHNOLOGY 5The tegument on the orbiter where we need to maintain the MEMS based thermic control is called variable emittance surfacing instrument. This consist of 2 parts I ) MEMS shutter array radiator ( MSA ) and electronic control unit ( ECA ) . MSA located on bottom deck of ballistic capsule whereas ECA located within the ballistic capsule. Consists of arrays in the order of 150mm long and 6 millimeters broad shutters and are driven by electrostatic combs . Device exposed to the radiator and substrate should be thermally and electrically coupled to the radiator so that heat is allowed to reassign and electric charging is prevented. A polymer called CPI, which is both transmissive and electrically conductive, is used to extinguish the jeopardies due to environment. A 4mm movie midst is sandwiched and bonded. CPI movie is suspended above shutters and Acts of the Apostless as a barrier between MEMS and environment. Coating of InSnO2 is applied to for electrical conduction [ 7 ] .FLAT PLASMA SPECTROMETER FOR THE USAFA FALCONSAT-3MEMS fiction helped in doing usage of level plasma spectrometer ( FIaPS ) , which provides finer declarations and angular distributions. FIaPS was placed on the orbiter which will so mensurate the ion spectra derived function in energy. This instrument includes a PCB, power supply, detector caput array and human body. Sensor caput is fabricated and assembled, it consists of an array of indistinguishable spectrome ter faculties and an anode home base for sensing. This consists of three beds of Si and two beds of Be Cu. Five beds are stacked instead. CuBe home bases were used for preciseness to accomplish array of channels. Each Si had 5 dies. Wafer was diced such that each of the five dies are bonded separately to the CuBe home bases. The remainder of the points were assembled and packaged into ballistic capsule interface lodging unit utilizing many prison guards. Bonded constituents of detector caput used iridite plated aluminum rods for maintain the MCP [ 7 ] .MICROMIRROR ARRAYS FOR THE JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE ( JWST )JWST is equipped with mutiobject spectrometer, MEMS mirror arrays which acts as a slit mask for the spectrometer and selectively direct visible radiation from different parts in the infinite to the spectrometer. CMOS driver bit was designed. Large french friess are bonded onto Si substrate to extinguish emphasiss due to mismatched coefficients between the bit and substrate. CMOS assembly was put inside the bundle utilizing peripheral force per unit area contacts [ 7 ] .MICROJET JET ENGINESThis is a micromachined actuator used for propulsion and energy transitions. This device is being developed presently consists of a compressor, burning chamber and turbine. It uses H as its fuel. High aspect ratio of this device is obtained utilizing reactive ion etching ( RIE ) which is an advanced method of MEMS engineering [ 7 ] .Detectors and Actuators in Aerospace ApplicationsDetectors are used in assortment of aerospace applications like set downing cogwheel, ice protection. Measuring of fuel and pilotage. Modern airplanes have automated cockpits and a batch for information about the aircrafts tallness, velocity, temperature and cabin force per unit area is given by the array of detectors in it. These vehicles besides have automatic pilotage due to inertial counsel systems and conditions updates are given continuously. These detectors are utile in meteoric face ts to cognize more about the conditions [ 7 ] . The usage of MEMS in aerospace systems is extremely application particular and reduced the size, power ingestion and weight at the constituent degree. The cost and advantage and electronic integrating capacities of MEMS will assist in leting distributed measuring and propulsion. This helps in cut downing size, wet content and it becomes more vulnerable and dependable [ 7 ] .DecisionHere we have seen a big figure of packaging applications that ‘s have been used by MEMS devices in infinite applications. In the semiconducting material industry, these bundles are the lone devices that can protect devices from radiation and this holds for packaging of MEMS device. These actuators and detectors need to be exposed to the environment to execute their original maps ; besides due to the individualism of MEMS devices, there is no general bundle solution, every device requires its ain bundle attack of MEMS. The bundle needs to protect the device from all the environmental conditions. Humid and wet content has to be taken attention of decently for MEMS bundles to be dependable. There been many chances to turn out how utile these bundles are in the flight and infinite applications. In order to larn more about MEMS applications many more flight chances should be made [ 6 ] .

Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget was born in Neuchatel, Switzerland on August 9, 1986 to Arthur Piaget and Rebecca Jackson. At a young age, he displayed great fascination for Biology, his intellectual love. Jean Piaget, at the age of 10 published his first article, which described the albino sparrow he observed. Between the ages of 15 and 18, he published several more articles and most of them are mollusks. Jean Piaget was especially drawn to epistemology, the branch of philosophy concerned with the origins of knowledge. He studied natural sciences in the University of Neuchatel and gained his PH. D there. Piaget then worked for a period of at Bleur’s psychiatric clinic in Zurich where he became interested in psychoanalysis. He studied clinical psychology in the Sorbome University in Paris in the year 1919. In 1930s, he was employed at the Binet Institute where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers on the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children. In 1923, he married, Valentine Chatenay. They had three children, Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent whose intellectual development from infancy to language was studied by Piaget. In 1929, he accepted the post of Director of the International Bureau of Education and remained the head of his international organization. In 1955, he created and directed until his death the International Center for Genetic Epistemology. Piaget was productive his entire lifetime, he published 30 books and more than 200 articles. Cognitive Development Theory: Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world. The foremost cognitive thinker was Jean Piaget, who proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults. It proposes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. It views intelligence as the ability to adapt to all aspects of reality, that within the person’s lifetime, it evolves through a series of qualitatively distinct stages. Organization- involves in the integration of all process into one overall system. It refers to the organism’s innate capability to coordinate particular observations into complex systems of coherent knowledge. Adaptation- it is the organism’s response to the environment in a way it could meet balance. (Equilibrium) Dynamics of Personality: Schema- is the category of knowledge that helps us understand or interpret the world. It is the basic cognitive unit. In this complex concept involves either mental organization, or a child’s conceptualization of a specific situation, and behavior that can be seen. Assimilation- is the â€Å"taking in,† or incorporation of a new object, experience, or concept into an existing set of schemes, that is, to the child’s present cognitive structure. It is the process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it â€Å"dog† is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema. Accommodation- it is the adaptation of the current knowledge to another new experience. It involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process. It is also the process by which children change their cognitive structures to deal with new objects and situations. Equilibrium- assimilation and accommodation are constantly working together to produce changes in a child’s conceptualization of the world and reaction to it. It gives state of balance to assimilation and accommodation. Growth Development: The Sensorimotor stage it ranges from birth to 2 years. In this stage intelligence is primitive in form. It is the coordination of sensory information and motor activity. in this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it. The six substages of Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage are Reflex activity from 0-1 month old which builds knowledge through reflexes. Primary Circular Reaction from 1-4 months. It is the infants repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occurred by chance (such as sucking). Secondary Circular Reactions it is from 4 to 8 months. In this stage infants become more interested in the environment and repeat actions that bring interesting results and prolong interesting experiences. Coordination of Secondary Schemes from 8-12 months. In this stage, the behavior is more deliberate and purposeful as infants coordinate previously learned schemes and use previously learned behaviors to attain their goals( such as crawling across the room to get a desired toy). Tertiary Circular Reactions from 12-18 months. In this stage infants show curiosity as they purposefully vary their actions to see results. They use trial and error in this stage. Mental Combinations from 18-24 months. Since toddlers have developed a primitive symbol system. To represent events, they no longer are confirmed to trial and error to solve problems. They represent objects through action already. Preoperational stage ranges from 2-7 years. In this stage the child already begun to speak. Piaget noted that in this stage children do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot mentally manipulate information. There are 3 kinds of techniques Piaget use to study this stage; first is the Egocentrism it is the children’s assurance that the world thinks like they do. The best technique that Piaget uses to this is the 3 dimensional play of mountain scene. Which best describe as â€Å"Three Mountain task† when children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had observed. Most children are able to do this with little difficulty. Next, children are asked to select a picture showing what someone else would have observed when looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint. Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the mountain scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to take on another person's perspective. Next is Animism it is the tendency to attribute life to object that are not biologically alive. It is the belief that inanimate objects are moved through will and spirits. Last is Artificialism it is the belief that things are created by human beings. Concrete Operational Stage from 7-11 years. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts. Logic Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event. Reversibility one of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal. In this stage, children became more objective and less egocentric. Formal Operational Stage from 12 years and above. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage. Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics. Abstract thought while children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning. In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem. Applicability of the Theory: Piaget did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have explained how features of Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching and learning. Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching. For example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967). Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring – was seen as central to the transformation of primary school curriculum. ‘The report's recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in children's learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children's progress – teachers should ‘not assume that only what is measurable is valuable. ‘ Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages the notion of ‘readiness' important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage cognitive development. Within the classroom learning should be student centred a accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore teachers should encourage the following within the classroom: o Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it. o Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing â€Å"truths†. Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other). o Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child. o Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can be set. Strengths: * Piaget’s Theory remains a dominant force in developmental psychology. * It has spawned tremendous amount of empirical research and additional discoveries that increased our understanding about cognitive development. * He changed how people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children. His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating with children, particularly in the field of education, and are still used in the present age. Weaknesses: * Piaget’s theory underestimated children’s ability and competencies. * Because Piaget concentrated on the universal stages of cognitive development and biological maturation, his theory wasn’t cross-culturally valid, since the social setting and culture has an effect on cognitive development. S ome of his sample in his experiments was biased that it cannot be generalized to children from different cultures.

Styles and Themes of Samuel Richardson

Styles and Themes of Samuel Richardson Samuel Richardson wrote his novels using the epistolary novel style, in which all the books are made up of letters. These letters are meant to be written during the time that the stories take place by the main character. They either described a scene or dialogue within the scene (Brophy 245). The stories used the themes of female dominance over the emotions of a man, and male dominance over the physicality of a woman. Also, many women in his stories are put under a great amount of distress, which takes up most of the plot of the novel (â€Å"Richardson Criticism†). Little is known of Richardson's early years beyond the few things that Richardson was willing to share. Although he was not forthcoming with specific events and incidents, he did talk about the origins of his writing ability; Richardson would tell stories to his friends and spent his youth constantly writing letters. One such letter, written when Richardson was almost 11, was directed to a woman in her 50s who was in the habit of constantly criticizing others (Brissenden 2). â€Å"Assuming the style and address of a person in years†, Richardson cautioned her about her actions. However, his handwriting was used to determine that it was his work, and the woman complained to his mother (Harris 68). The result was, as he explains, that â€Å"my mother chides me for the freedom taken by such a boy with a woman of her years† but also â€Å"commended my principles, though she censured the liberty taken (Brophy 245). † Pamela was immediately and extremely popular with the reading public. Richardson initially also enjoyed critical acclaim and was considered one of the most important English novelists. His contemporaries focused almost exclusively on his moral teachings, and most praised the author for his judgment and honesty. Richardson's stated purpose in his works was moral instruction and thus when his sincerity was eventually questioned, and his work attacked by Fielding in parodies including Shamela, Richardson defended himself with explanations and revisions, particularly in the third edition of Pamela. Fielding ridiculed Pamela's obsession with chastity and her tendency to measure the rewards of virtue in material terms (Harris 87). Fielding's interpretation of Pamela established the opposition between â€Å"Pamelist† and â€Å"anti-Pamelist† which has persisted to the present day (Brissenden 32). Richardson's popularity rapidly diminished in the nineteenth-century until he was generally neglected. However, critics would on occasion mention him as historically important for advancing the epistolary form. William Hazlitt perceptively wrote that his works combine the romance of fiction with the â€Å"literal minuteness of a common diary. † Twentieth-century critics have emphasized Richardson's concept of self (Brissenden 12). His character's extreme self-awareness can be read at different levels; according to both Richardson and critics, the characters are not as bound to the truth as they continually claim. Elements of Richardson's work have often been praised in spite of their author; critics suggested that the depths of his work were present unconsciously or even by accident (Brissenden 32). Scholar A. D. McKillop argued convincingly to the contrary, that Richardson was a skilled, deliberate craftsman conscious of his work, its layers, and its meanings. Further rehabilitation to Richardson's reputation was gained from W. M. Sale's painstaking bibliographic study and Ian Watt's discussion of background and technique. Richardson is studied today as a psychological novelist and as a social historian for his descriptions and insight in regard to the relationships of the sexes in a patriarchal society, and to sexual themes in general (Brissenden 32).. While working for Wilde, he met a rich gentleman who took an interest in Richardson's writing abilities and the two began to correspond with each other. When the gentleman died a few years later, Richardson lost a potential patron, which delayed his ability to pursue his own writing career. He decided to devote himself completely to his apprenticeship, and he worked his way up to a position as a compositor and a corrector of the shop's printing press. In 1713, Richardson left Wilde to become â€Å"Overseer and Corrector of a Printing-Office†. This meant that Richardson ran his own shop, but the location of that shop is unknown. It is possible that the shop was located in Staining Lane or may have been jointly run with John Leake in Jewin Street (Brophy 245). In 1719, Richardson was able to take his freedom from being an apprentice and was soon able to afford to set up his own printing shop, which he did after he moved near the Salisbury Court district close to Fleet Street. Although he claimed to business associates that he was working out of the well-known Salisbury Court, his printing shop was more accurately located on the corner of Blue Ball Court and Dorset Street in a house that later became Bell's Building (Brissenden 12). On 23 November 1721 Richardson married Martha Wilde, the daughter of his former employer. The match was â€Å"prompted mainly by prudential considerations†, although Richardson would claim later that there was a strong love-affair between him and Martha. He soon brought her to live with him in the printing shop that served also as his home (Brissenden 14). One of Richardson's first major printing contracts came in June of 1723 when he began to print the bi-weekly The True Briton for Philip Wharton, 1st Duke of Wharton. This was a Jacobite political paper which attacked the government and was soon censored for printing â€Å"common libel (Brophy 245). However, Richardson's name was not on the publication, and he was able to escape any of the negative fallout, although it is possible that Richardson participated in the papers as far as actually authoring one himself. The only lasting effect from the paper would be the incorporation of Wharton's libertine characteristics in the character of Lovelace in Richardson's Clarissa, although Wharton would be only one of many models of libertine behavior that Richardson would find in his life. In 1724, Richardson befriended Thomas Gent, Henry Woodfall, and Arthur Onslow, the latter of those would become the Speaker of the House of Commons (Kinkead-Weekes 667). In 1733, Richardson was granted a contract with the House of Commons, with help from Onslow, to print the Journals of the House. The twenty-six volumes of the work soon improved his business. Later in 1733, he wrote The Apprentice’s Vade Mecum, urging young men like him to be diligent and self-denying (Brophy 245). The work was intended to â€Å"create the perfect apprentice. Written in response to the â€Å"epidemic Evils of the present Age†, the text is best known for its condemnation of popular forms of entertainment including theatres, taverns and gambling. The manual targets the apprentice as the focal point for the moral improvement of society, not because he is most susceptible to vice, but because, Richardson suggests, he is more responsive to moral improvement than his social betters. His tota l staff during the 1730s numbered 7, as his first three apprentices were free by 1728, and two of his apprentices, Verren and Smith, died soon into their apprenticeship (Brophy 245). The loss of Verren was particularly devastating to Richardson because Verren was his nephew and his hope for a male heir that would take over the press (Kinkead-Weekes 67). Work continued to improve, and Richardson printed the Daily Journal between 1736 and 1737, and the Daily Gazetteer in 1738. During his time printing the Daily Journal, he was also printer to the â€Å"Society for the Encouragement of Learning†, a group that tried to help authors become independent from publishers, but collapsed soon after. In December 1738, Richardson's printing business was successful enough to allow him to lease a house in Fulham. This house, which would be Richardson's residence from 1739 to 1754, was later named â€Å"The Grange† in 1836. In 1739, Richardson was asked by his friends Charles Irvington and John Osborn to write â€Å"a little volume of Letters, in a common style, on such subjects as might be of use to those country readers, who were unable to invite for themselves. † While writing this volume, Richardson was inspired to write his first novel (Brophy 245). Richardson made the transition from master printer to novelist on 6 November 1740 with the publication of Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded. Pamela was sometimes regarded as â€Å"the first English novel. † Richardson explained the origins of the work (Brophy 245). In the progress, writing two or three letters to instruct handsome girls, who were obliged to go out to service, as we phrase it, how to avoid the snares that might be laid against their virtue, and hence sprung Pamela†¦ Little did I think, at first, of making one, much less two volumes of it†¦ I thought the story, if written in an easy and natural manner, suitably to the simplicity of it, might possibly introduce a new species of writing, that might possibly turn young people into a course of reading different from the pomp and parade of romance-writing, and dismissing the improbable and marvelous, with which novels generally abound, might tend to promote the cause of religion and virtue (Kinkead-Weekes 47). After Richardson started the work on 10 November 1739, his wife and her friends became so interested in the story that he finished it on 10 January 1740. Pamela Andrews, the heroine of Pamela, represented â€Å"Richardson's insistence upon well-defined feminine roles† and was part of a common fear held during the 18th century that women were â€Å"too bold. † In particular, her â€Å"zeal for housewifery† was included as a proper role of women in society. Although Pamela and the title heroine were popular and gave a proper model for how women should act, they inspired â€Å"a storm of anti-Pamelas† (like Henry Fielding's Shamela and Joseph Andrews) because the character â€Å"perfectly played her part (Brophy 243). † Later that year, Richardson printed Rivington and Osborn's book which inspired Pamela under the title of Letters written to and for particular Friends, on the most important Occasions. Directing not only the requisite Style and Forms to be observed in writing Familiar Letters; but how to think and act justly and prudently, in the common Concerns of Human Life. The book contained many anecdotes and lessons on how to live, but Richardson did not care for the work and it was never expanded even though it went into six editions during his life. He went so far as to tell a friend, â€Å"This volume of letters is not worthy of your perusal† because they were â€Å"intended for the lower classes of people. In September 1741, a sequel of Pamela called Pamela's Conduct in High Life was published by Ward and Chandler. Although the work lacks the literary merits of the original, Richardson was compelled to publish two more volumes in December 1741 to tell of further exploits of Pamela, the title heroine, while â€Å"in her Exalted Condition. † The public's interest in the characters was waning, and this was only furthered by Richardson's focusing on Pamela disc ussing morality, literature, and philosophy. After the failures of the Pamela sequels, Richardson began to compose a new novel. It was not until early 1744 that the content of the plot was known, and this happened when he sent Aaron Hill two chapters to read. In particular, Richardson asked Hill if he could help shorten the chapters because Richardson was worried about the length of the novel. Hill refused, saying, You have formed a style, as much your property as our respect for what you write is, where verbosity becomes a virtue; because, in pictures which you draw with such a skillful negligence, redundancy but conveys resemblance; and to contract the strokes, would be to spoil the likeness (Kunitz 60). In July, Richardson sent Hill a complete â€Å"design† of the story, and asked Hill to try again, but Hill responded, â€Å"It is impossible, after the wonders you have shown in Pamela, to question your infallible success in this new, natural, attempt† and that â€Å"you must give me leave to be astonished, when you tell me that you have finished it already. † However, the novel wasn't complete to Richardson's satisfaction until October 1746. Between 1744 and 1746, Richardson tried to find readers who could help him shorten the work, but his readers wanted to keep the work in its entirety (Kunitz 60). A frustrated Richardson wrote to Edward Young in November 1747: What contentions, what disputes have I involved myself in with my poor Clarissa through my own diffidence, and for want of a will! I wish I had never consulted anybody but Dr. Young, who so kindly vouchsafed me his ear, and sometimes his opinion (Brissenden 32). Richardson did not devote all of his time just to working on his new novel, but was busy printing various works for other authors that he knew. In 1742, he printed the third edition of Daniel's Tour through Great Britain. He filled his new few years with smaller works for his friends until 1748, when Richardson started helping Sarah Fielding and her friend Jane Collier to write novels. By 1748, Richardson was so impressed with Collier that he accepted her as the governess to his daughters (Brophy 243). In 1753, she wrote An Essay on the Art of Ingeniously Tormenting with the help of Sarah Fielding and possibly James Harris or Richardson, and it was Richardson who printed the work (Kunitz 60). But Collier was not the only author to be helped by Richardson, as he printed an edition of Young's Night Thoughts in 1749. By 1748 his novel Clarissa was published in full: two volumes appeared in November 1747, two in April 1748 and three in December 1748. Unlike the novel, the author was not faring well at this time. By August 1748, Richardson was in poor health. He had a sparse diet that consisted mostly of vegetables and drinking vast amount of water, and was not robust enough to prevent the effects of being bled upon the advice of various doctors throughout his life. He was known for â€Å"vague ‘startings' and ‘paroxysms'†, along with experiencing tremors. Richardson once wrote to a friend that â€Å"my nervous disorders will permit me to write with more impunity than to read† and that writing allowed him a â€Å"freedom he could find nowhere else (Brissenden 32). † However, his condition did not stop him from continuing to release the final volumes Clarissa after November 1748 (Brophy 243). To Hill he wrote: â€Å"The Whole will make Seven; that is, one more to attend these two. Eight crowded into Seven, by a smaller Type. Ashamed as I am of the Prolixity, I thought I owed the Public Eight Vols. n Quantity for the Price of Seven† Richardson later made it up to the public with â€Å"deferred Restorations† of the fourth edition of the novel being printed in larger print with eight volumes and a preface that reads: â€Å"It is proper to observe with regard to the present Edition that it has been thought fit to restore many Passages, and several Letters which were omitted in the former merely for shortening-sa ke (Brophy 243). † The response to the novel was positive, and the public began to describe the title heroine as â€Å"divine Clarissa. It was soon considered Richardson's â€Å"masterpiece,† his greatest work, and was rapidly translated into French in part or in full, for instance by the Antoine Francois Prevost, as well as into German. In England there was particular emphasis on Richardson's â€Å"natural creativity† and his ability to incorporate daily life experience into the novel (Brissenden 32).. However, the final three volumes were delayed, and many of the readers began to â€Å"anticipate† the concluding story and some demanded that Richardson write a happy ending. One such advocate of the happy ending was Henry Fielding, who had previously written Joseph Andrews to mock Richardson's Pamela. Although Fielding was originally opposed to Richardson, Fielding supported the original volumes of Clarissa and thought a happy ending would be â€Å"poetical justice (Brissenden 34). Others wanted Lovelace to be reformed and for him and Clarissa to marry, but Richardson would not allow a â€Å"reformed rake† to be her husband, and was unwilling to change the ending. In a postscript to Clarissa, Richardson wrote: If the temporary sufferings of the Virtuous and the Good can be accounted for and justified on Pagan principles, many more and infinitely stronger reasons will occur to a Christian Reader in behalf of what are called unhappy Catastrophes, from a consideration of the doctrine of future rewards; which is everywhere strongly enforced in the History of Clarissa (Brissenden 36). Although few were bothered by the epistolary style, Richardson feels obligated to continue his postscript with a defense of the form based on the success of it in Pamela. However, some did question the propriety of having Lovelace, the villain of the novel, act in such an immoral fashion. The novel avoids glorifying Lovelace, as Carol Flynn puts it, But Richardson still felt the need to respond by writing a pamphlet called Answer to the Letter of a Very Reverend and Worthy Gentleman (Peden 236). In the pamphlet, he defends his characterizations and explains that he took great pains to avoid any glorification of scandalous behavior, unlike the authors of many other novels that rely on characters of such low quality (Brissenden 32).. In 1749, Richardson's female friends started asking him to create a male figure as virtuous as his heroines â€Å"Pamela† and â€Å"Clarissa† in order to â€Å"give the world his idea of a good man and fine gentleman combined. † Although he did not at first agree, he eventually complied, starting work on a book in this vein in June 1750. Near the end of 1751, Richardson sent a draft of the novel The History of Sir Charles Grandison to Mrs. Dunnellon, and the novel was being finalized in the middle of 1752. When the novel was being printed in 1753, Richardson discovered that Irish printers were trying to pirate the work (Brissenden 32).. He immediately fired those he suspected of giving the printers advanced copies of Grandison and relied on multiple London printing firms to help him produce an authentic edition before the pirated version was sold. In Grandison, Richardson was unwilling to risk having a negative response to any â€Å"rakish† characteristics that Lovelace embodied and denigrated the immoral characters â€Å"to show those mischievous young admirers of Lovelace once and for all that the rake should be avoided (Brissenden 32). † At the same time as he was associating with important figures of the day, Richardson's career as a novelist drew to a close. Grandison was his final novel, and he stopped writing fiction afterwards. However, he was continually prompted by various friends and admirers to continue to write along with suggested topics. Richardson did not like any of the topics, and chose to spend all of his time composing letters to his friends and associates (Peden 236). The only major work that Richardson would write would be A Collection of the Moral and Instruction Sentiments, Maxims, Cautions, and Reflexions, contained in the Histories of Pamela, Clarissa, and Sir Charles Grandison. Although it is possible that this work was inspired by Johnson asking for â€Å"index rerum† for Richardson’s novels, the Collection contains more of a focus on â€Å"moral and instructive† lessons than the index that Johnson sought. Richardson was a skilled letter writer and his talent traces back to his childhood. Throughout his whole life, he would constantly write to his various associates (Peden 236). Richardson had a â€Å"faith† in the act of letter writing, and believed that letters could be used to accurately portray character traits. He quickly adopted the epistolary novel form, which granted him â€Å"the tools, the space, and the freedom to develop distinctly different characters speaking directly to the reader. † The characters of Pamela, Clarissa, and Grandison are revealed in a personal way, with the first two using the epistolary form for â€Å"dramatic† purposes, and the last for â€Å"celebratory† purposes (Peden 236). In his first novel, Pamela, he explored the various complexities of the title character's life, and the letters allow the reader to witness her develop and progress over time. The novel was an experiment, but it allowed Richardson to create a complex heroine through a series of her letters. When Richardson wrote Clarissa, he had more experience in the form and expanded the letter writing to four different correspondents, which created a complex system of characters encouraging each other to grow and develop over time (Kunitz 60). However, the villain of the story, Lovelace, is also involved in the letter writing, and this leads to tragedy (Brissenden 32). Leo Braudy described the benefits of the epistolary form of Clarissa as, â€Å"Language can work: letters can be ways to communicate and justify. † By the time Richardson writes Grandison, he transforms the letter writing from telling of personal insights and explaining feelings into a means for people to communicate their thoughts on the actions of others and for the public to celebrate virtue. The letters are no longer written for a few people, but are passed along in order for all to see (Brophy 243). Works Cited Brissenden, R. F. â€Å"Samuel Richardson. † British Writers. Ed. Ian Scott-Kilvert. Vol. 3. New York: Scribner, 1987. Print. Brophy, Elizabeth Bergen. Samuel Richardson: The Triumph of Craft. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1974. Print. Eaves, T. C. Duncan, and Ben D. Kimpel. Samuel Richardson: a Biography. Oxford: Clarendon, 1971. Print. Harris, Jocelyn. Samuel Richardson. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987. Print. Kearney, A. M. Samuel Richardson. London, Routledge & K. Paul: Northumberland Limited, 1968. Print. Kinkead-Weekes, Mark. Introduction. Pamela. By Samuel Richardson. Vol. 1. London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1962. Print. —. Samuel Richardson: Dramatic Novelist. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1973. Print. Kunitz, Stanley J. , and Howard Haycraft, eds. â€Å"Samuel Richardson. † British Authors Before 1800: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: H. Wilson, 1952. Print. Peden, William. â€Å"Samuel Richardson. † Critical Survey of Long Fiction. Ed. Carl E. Rollyson. Vol. 6. Pasadena, CA: Salem, 2000. Print. â€Å"Samuel Richardson Criticism. † ENotes – Literature Study Guides,

Recruitment and Selection (Human Resources Managment) Essay

Recruitment and Selection (Human Resources Managment) - Essay Example In today’s rapidly changing world and with the strategic focus, selection also needs to be strategic. Strategic selection demands a range of activities in the general stream of looking for candidates to fit in the jobs. It involves not only the job at hand but potential range of matches for the person in future jobs. Additionally, the enhancing reach of globalization demands much more flexibility and certain interpersonal and personal skills for a candidate to undertake the ever changing and challenging environment i.e. effective selection by the HR selectors. However, the basic match of candidates to the job description is of significant value because otherwise, achievement of organizational goals and attaining appropriate return on investment (on human capital) is not possible. In true terms, no training or motivation or praise can make individuals work beyond their capacity. Current scenario For Toyota R & S policy The globalization of business has shift from trade and busi ness to strategic alliances, integration of businesses etc. This change has significantly affected the HR practices. One of the major challenges, which global organizations are facing today, is attracting global talent. Toyota, one of the largest shareholders of the global automobile market, is no exception when it comes to facing HR problems, particularly in the US, and in other countries as well where their business has grown. Over the years, the observation has been a general and massive shift of jobs from manufacturing and agriculture to service industry and telecommunication. US economy is moreover a services based economy with 80% of the jobs belonging to the services industry. The trend is expected to continue, resulting in increased demand for services industry jobs and reduced inclination towards agricultural or manufacturing units. Toyota being a manufacturing firm hence suffered from this trend. It meant for Toyota lesser pool of candidates available for recruitment and s election. Changing demographics, shortage of highly skilled and qualified specialist and legislative problems are some of the problems Toyota’s HR has to face globally. (Robert L Malthis, 2008) In order to handle this issue, Toyota should make use of various internal and external recruitment models. The forthcoming sections of this report discuss the various aspects of recruitment and selection model used by Toyota. Nature and composition of workforce Toyota believes in low cost and high performance, which is why the business has developed a proper recruitment and selection process that reflects Toyota’s philosophy. Toyota’s main objective is cost reduction and lean management but they believe in valuing their human capital. Same methodology is followed in recruitment and selection. There are a number of temporary and permanent employees in the organziation. Toyota also makes use of off shoring and outsourcing in countries where there is shortage of skilled labo r such as USA and other North American countries. Sound procedures in